The history of the Sudan is a long and complex one, marked by the rise and fall of various kingdoms and empires. From the ancient Nubian kingdoms of Kush and Meroë, which flourished for centuries, to the Islamic sultanates that followed, the Sudan has been a crossroads of cultures and a center of trade and learning. The arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century brought Islam and a new language, which gradually spread throughout the land. The Funj Sultanate, established in the 16th century, was a powerful force that unified much of the Sudan and fostered a rich cultural heritage. Later, the country came under Ottoman and then Egyptian rule, before being conquered by the Mahdist forces in the late 19th century. The Mahdist state, though short-lived, left a lasting impact on Sudanese identity and resistance. The Anglo-Egyptian condominium, which followed, ushered in a period of colonial rule, but also laid the groundwork for modern Sudanese institutions.